Chinese poetry can be divided into three main periods: the early period, characterized by folk songs in simple, repetitive forms; the classical period from the Han dynasty to the fall of the Qing dynasty, in which a number of different forms were developed; and the modern period of Westernized free verse.
The Shi Jing (literally "Classic of Poetry", also called "Book of Songs") was the first major collection of Chinese poems, collecting both aristocratic poems (Odes) and more rustic poetry, probably derived from folksongs (Songs).
A second, more lyrical and romantic anthology was the Chu Ci (楚辭 Songs of Chu), made up primarily of poems ascribed to the semi- legendary Qu Yuan (c. 340 BCE- 278 BCE) and his follower Song Yu (fourth century BCE).
During the Han dynasty (206 BCE- CE 220), the Chu lyrics evolved into the fu (賦), a poem usually in rhymed verse except for introductory and concluding passages that are in prose, often in the form of questions and answers; often called a poetical essay (i.e. Robert van Gulik). One of the fine examples of fu is Xi Kang's Qin Fu 《琴賦》, or "Poetical Essay in Praise of the Qin".
From the Han dynasty onwards, a process similar to the origins of the Shi Jing produced the yue fu poems. Again, these were song lyrics, including original folk songs, court imitations and versions by known poets (the best known of the latter being those of Li Bai).
From the second century CE, the yue fu began to develop into shi or classical poetry- the form which was to dominate Chinese poetry until the modern era. These poems have five or seven character lines, with a caesura before the last three characters of each line. They are divided into the original gushi (old poems) and jintishi, a stricter form developed in the Tang dynasty with rules governing tone patterns and the structure of the content. The greatest writers of gushi and jintishi are often held to be Li Bai and Du Fu respectively.
Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, the ci lyric became more popular. Most closely associated with the Song dynasty, ci most often expressed feelings of desire, often in an adopted persona, but the greatest exponents of the form (such as Li Houzhu and Su Shi) used it to address a wide range of topics.
As the ci gradually became more literary and artificial after Song times, the san qu, a freer form, based on new popular songs, developed. The use of san qu songs in drama marked an important step in the development of vernacular literature.
After the Song dynasty, both shi poems and lyrics continued to be composed until the end of the imperial period, and to a lesser extent to this day. However, for a number of reasons, these works have always been less highly regarded than those of the Tang dynasty in particular. Firstly, Chinese literary culture remained in awe of its predecessors: in a self-fulfilling prophecy, writers and readers both expected that new works would not bear comparison with the earlier masters. Secondly, the most common response of these later poets to the tradition which they had inherited was to produce work which was ever more refined and allusive; the resulting poems tend to seem precious or just obscure to modern readers. Thirdly, the increase in population, expansion of literacy, wider dissemination of works through printing and more complete archiving vastly increased the volume of work to consider and made it difficult to identify and properly evaluate those good pieces which were produced. Finally, this period saw the rise of vernacular literature, particularly drama and novels, which increasingly became the main means of cultural expression.
Modern Chinese poems usually do not follow any prescribed pattern. Poetry was revolutionized after the May Fourth Movement when writers try to use vernacular styles closer to what was being spoken rather than previously prescribed forms. Early twentieth-century poets like Xu Zhimo, Guo Moruo and Wen Yiduo sought to break Chinese poetry from past conventions by adopting Western models; for example Xu consciously follows the style of the Romantic poets with end-rhymes.
In the post-revolutionary Communist era, poets like Ai Qing used more liberal running lines and direct diction, which were vastly popular and widely imitated.
In the contemporary poetic scene, the most important and influential poets are the group known as Misty Poets, who use allusion and hermetic references. The most important Misty Poets include Bei Dao, Gu Cheng, Duo Duo, and
The Tang Dynasty
In 581 Yang Jian, prime minister of the Northern Zhou, seized power and established the Sui Dynasty. Eight years later he unified China after he conquered Chen in the south, thus putting an end to the period of division which lasted more than three centuries.
His son, who succeeded him, was a corrupt and evil emperon. His despotic rule was hated by the people, and peasant uprisings started. The dynasty was overthrown only 37 years after it was founded.
Li Yuan, a military commander in Taiyuan, Shanxi raised an army and occupied Chang'an. In 618 he founded the Tang Dynasty. His chief advisor was his second son, Li Shimin. In a power struggle Shimin killed his two brothers; his father had to five him the throne.
This ambitious and capable young man turned out to be one of the wisest emperors that ruled China. He was later called Tang Tai Zong. The 130 years from his time to the Time of Tang Xuan Zong was the heyday not only of the Tang Dynasty, but of the whole feudal period of China. The Tang emperors ruled over a vast area, larger than /china had been during the Han Dynasty. China was then the largest and strongest country in the world; it was also economically and culturally the most advanced. In Chang'an, the capital, there were over 300,000 households, with a great number of merchants, traders, scholars and students from foreign countries. Chinese culture, including philosophy, and political, legal and economic systems, had a far-reaching influence, especially in East Asia. At the same time, foreign products and culture were introduced into China.
In 755 the revolt of An Lushan and Shi Siming broke out. Their troops entered Chang'an, and Xuan Zong fled to Sichuan in a hurry. This was the beginning of the decline of the Tang Dynasty. But the dynasty,
Li Bai
Li Bai (701-762) was born in Suiye in Central Asia. His ancestors had been banished there by the Sui rulers. At five he moved to Sichuan with his father, who was probably a rich merchant. When young, he studied not only Confucian classics, but works of other schools. After 20 he first travelled for and wide in Sichuan, and then he started a long journey to Central, East and North China. He did not sit for the civil service examination, for he looked down upon it. But he wished to become an official. When he was 42, he was recommended to Tang Xuan Zong, who ordered him to go to Chang'an. He stayed there for three years and was bitterly disappointed. During the years of An Lushan's rebellion, he joined the staff of Prince Li Lin. Later, because Li Lin tried to seize power and failed, Li Bai was exiled to Yelang. On his way to Yelang he was freed by an amnesty. He went to East China and died at 62 in Dangtu, Anhui.
He wrote as many as 900 poems. Some of them describe the life of the people; some describe the magnificent scenery he saw; others express his own wishes and sorrows. His poems are characterized by unusual imagination and free and direct expression of feelings. That is why he is called a romantic poet.
At dawn I left Baidi towering in the midst of colorful clouds,
And reached Jiangling a thousand Li away in a day.
The screams of monkeys on either bank went on and on,
While my light boat passed by ten thousand hills.Satisfaction and admiration will fill our hearts when we read such beautiful and dashing lines. They are so colorful, so musical, and so impressive. The image in the poem-a boat rushing toward down the gorges-is just a description of the poet himself.
Du Fu (712-770) was born in Gongxian, Henan. The son of an official, he was interested in learning when he was young. "I read ten thousand volumns until they were worn out," he said. At 20 he started his 10-year-long travels from north to south. At 35 he went to Chang'an, where he stayed for ten years without getting any position in the government. His disappointment made him look at reality and see the sharp contrast between the life of the upper classes and that of the ordinary people. He began to write poems about the sufferings of the poor. After the An Lushan rebellion began, he had a hard time as a refugee, but this brought him closer to the people. His well-known poems describing three officials and three departures were written during this period. In 759 he went to Chengdu. After wandering in Sichuan, Hubei and Hunan for more than ten years, he finally died on board a small boat on his way from Changsha to Yueyang.
Deep sympathy for the people is one of the main characteristics of Du Fu's poems. In this respect he surpassed all earlier poets. His poems have been called "poetic history", for they reflect the political and military situation of his time, and the life and miseries of the people. He pushed the tradition of realism in poetry to a new level.
Here are the first six lines from the poem "The Official of Shihao":
At dusk I came to Shihao Village to stay overnight,
And heard an official trying to catch somone after dark.
The old man in the house climbed over the wall and fled,
Leaving the old woman to face the official at the door.
Shouting loudly, the official was very angry;
Sobbing bitterly, the woman was full of sorrow.Du Fu exposes the Shameless luxury of the ruling class in these famous lines:
Behind the red doors wine and meat stink,
But on the roads lie men frozen to death.Li Bai and Du Fu are among the greatest poets that China has produced. Their poems have given the Chinese people boundless inspiration and have been taken as models of poetry. Han Yu, also a famous Tang poet, wrote: "The works of Li and Du are there; their brilliant light will shine for ever."
Two years after Du Fu died, another great poet was born. Bai Juyi (772-846), the son of a petty official, was born in Xinzheng, Henan. He spent his youth wandring about to escape wars, and was often cold and hungry. He was successful in civil service examinations, became an official, and worked in the central government for about 15 years. Then because he was disliked by those in power, he was sent ot work in Jiangzhou (now Jiujiang), Hangzhou and Suzhou. Later he moved to Luoyang, where he died at the age of 75.
Bai Juyi wrote more poems than any other Tang poet-nearly 3,000. Many of them deal with important social and political problems, and show signs of Du Fu's influence. He also wrote many lyrics expressing his personal feelings. His two long narrative poems-"The Everlasting Sorrow" and "The Song of a Pipa Player"-are among the best known. Many of his poems have deep meaning, and they are written in simple and plain language, which ordinary readers can understand.
The following are a few lines from "The Old Man with a Broken Arm":
In the south and in the north of my village people wept sadly;
Children were parting from parents and husbands from wives.
Everyone said that in battles against the southern tribes,
Of ten thousand men sent there not one returned.The poem clearly shows the poet's opposition to battles against border tribes, which caused miseries to both Han and tribal poeple.
In "The Song of a Pipa Player" there are these lines describing the beautiful music produced by the Pipa:
Strong and loud, the thick string sounded like a sudden shower;
Weak and soft, the thin string whispered in your ear.
When strong and weak, loud and soft sounds were mixed,
They were like big and tiny pearls falling on a jade plate.
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